Clinical Pharmacology of Bipolar Disorder: An Updated Review of Pharmacotherapeutic Strategies
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.12974/2313-1047.2026.13.04Keywords:
Bipolar disorder, Bipolar depression, Mania, Antimanic agents, Antipsychotics, Lithium, Anticonvulsants, Mood stabilizersAbstract
Bipolar disorder (BD) is a chronic, recurrent psychiatric illness characterized by episodes of mania, hypomania, and depression that substantially impair psychosocial functioning and quality of life. Pharmacotherapy remains the cornerstone of both acute symptom management and long-term relapse prevention. Over the past decade, advances in clinical trials and international treatment guidelines have refined the role of mood stabilizers, second-generation antipsychotics, and adjunctive therapies across different phases of illness. This review summarizes the current clinical pharmacology of bipolar disorder, emphasizing mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties, efficacy, safety, and monitoring requirements of established and emerging pharmacological treatments. Attention is given to lithium, anticonvulsant mood stabilizers, second-generation antipsychotics, the management of bipolar depression, treatment-resistant bipolar disorder, medication adherence, and individualized treatment selection. Recent evidence regarding suicide prevention, renal safety, reproductive considerations, and novel therapeutic strategies is integrated with current guideline recommendations to provide an evidence-based framework for optimizing long-term clinical outcomes.
References
Oliva V, Fico G, De Prisco M, Gonda X, Rosa AR, Vieta E. Bipolar disorders: an update on critical aspects. Lancet Reg Health Eur. 2024; 48: 101135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanepe.2024.101135
Singh B, Swartz HA, Cuellar-Barboza AB, Schaffer A, Kato T, Dols A, Sperry SH, Vassilev AB, Burdick KE, Frye MA. Bipolar disorder. Lancet. 2025; 406(10506): 963-978. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(25)01140-7
Menon V, Ganesh R, Deep R, Sarkhel S, Goswami S, Mohapatra D, Munoli RN, Sharma PSVN, Reddy MS, Muralidharan K. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of bipolar disorder: 2025 update. Indian J Psychiatry. 2026; 68: 8-43. https://doi.org/10.4103/indianjpsychiatry_1186_25
Fico G, Bort M, Gonzalez-Campos M, D'Alessandro G, De Prisco M, Oliva V, Anmella G, Sommerhoff C, Vieta E, Murru A. Predominant Polarity for Enhanced Phenotyping and Personalized Treatment of Bipolar Disorder: A Narrative Review on Recent Findings. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2025; 27: 221-230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-025-01592-x
Oliva V, Fico G, De Prisco M, Gonda X, Rosa AR, Vieta E. Bipolar disorders: an update on critical aspects. Lancet Reg Health Eur. 2024; 48: 101135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanepe.2024.101135
Chakrabarti S. Bipolar disorder in the International Classification of Diseases-Eleventh version: A review of the changes, their basis, and usefulness. World J Psychiatry. 2022 D; 12: 1335-1355. https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v12.i12.1335
Berk M, Corrales A, Trisno R, Dodd S, Yatham LN, Vieta E, McIntyre RS, Suppes T, Agustini B. Bipolar II disorder: a state-of-the-art review. World Psychiatry. 2025; 24: 175-189. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.21300
Van Meter AR, Youngstrom EA, Birmaher B, Fristad MA, Horwitz SM, Frazier TW, Arnold LE, Findling RL. Longitudinal course and characteristics of cyclothymic disorder in youth. J Affect Disord. 2017; 215: 314-322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.03.019
Solé E, Garriga M, Valentí M, Vieta E. Mixed features in bipolar disorder. CNS Spectr. 2017; 22: 134-140.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852916000869
Miola A, Tondo L, Pinna M, Contu M, Baldessarini RJ. Characteristics of rapid cycling in 1261 bipolar disorder patients. Int J Bipolar Disord. 2023; 11(1): 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40345-023-00300-z
Ashok AH, Marques TR, Jauhar S, Nour MM, Goodwin GM, Young AH, Howes OD. The dopamine hypothesis of bipolar affective disorder: the state of the art and implications for treatment. Mol Psychiatry. 2017; 22: 666-679. https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2017.16
Belujon P, Grace AA. Dopamine System Dysregulation in Major Depressive Disorders. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2017; 20: 1036-1046. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyx056
Frizzo ME. The Effect of Glutamatergic Modulators on Extracellular Glutamate: How Does this Information Contribute to the Discovery of Novel Antidepressants? Curr Ther Res Clin Exp. 2019; 91: 25-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.curtheres.2019.100566
Brady RO Jr, McCarthy JM, Prescot AP, Jensen JE, Cooper AJ, Cohen BM, Renshaw PF, Ongür D. Brain gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) abnormalities in bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord. 2013; 15: 434-439. https://doi.org/10.1111/bdi.12074
Mann JJ. The serotonergic system in mood disorders and suicidal behaviour. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2013; 368(1615): 20120537. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0537
Steardo L Jr, D'Angelo M, Monaco F, Di Stefano V, Steardo L. Decoding neural circuit dysregulation in bipolar disorder: Toward an advanced paradigm for multidimensional cognitive, emotional, and psychomotor treatment. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2025; 169: 106030. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106030
Schloesser RJ, Huang J, Klein PS, Manji HK. Cellular plasticity cascades in the pathophysiology and treatment of bipolar disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2008; 33: 110-133. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1301575
Thangavel M, Sterlin Raj T, Chinnappan S, Anbalagan M, Arunagirinathan N, Kuvin E, Sasikumar P, Paranjothy C, Mani RR. Lithium-induced neuroprotection in bipolar disorder: Translational insights into cytoskeletal and proteomic mechanisms. IBRO Neurosci Rep. 2025; 19: 725-736. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibneur.2025.10.003
Grados M, Salehi M, Lotfi A, Dua S and Xie I (2024) A selective review of inhibitors of protein kinase C gamma: a neuroplasticity-related common pathway for psychiatric illness. Front. Drug Deliv. 4: 1364037. https://doi.org/10.3389/fddev.2024.1364037
Sakrajda K, Rybakowski JK. The Mechanisms of Lithium Action: The Old and New Findings. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2025; 18(4): 467. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph18040467
Tonon AC, Nexha A, Mendonça da Silva M, Gomes FA, Hidalgo MP, Frey BN. Sleep and circadian disruption in bipolar disorders: From psychopathology to digital phenotyping in clinical practice. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2024; 78: 654-666. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcn.13729
Cheng Y, Wang M, Fang Y, Xu J, Zheng J, Ju P, Chen J. Causal Effects of Inflammatory Cytokines on Bipolar Disorder: A Bidirectional Two-Sample Mendelian Randomization Study. Brain Behav. 2025; 15(9): e70796. https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.70796
Trofin DM, Sardaru DP, Trofin D, Onu I, Tutu A, Onu A, Onită C, Galaction AI, Matei DV. Oxidative Stress in Brain Function. Antioxidants (Basel). 2025; 14(3): 297. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox14030297
Ogłodek EA, Vober J, Hýža M. Molecular and Neuroimaging Correlates of Bipolar Disorder: Linking Inflammation, Mitochondria, and Brain Circuitry. Int J Mol Sci. 2026; 27(3): 1478. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27031478
Bereda G. Pharmacological Management, Safety, and Outcomes in Bipolar Disorder: An Integrated Narrative Review of Clinical and Translational Evidence. Neuropsychopharmacol Rep. 2026; 46(2): e70141. https://doi.org/10.1002/npr2.70141
Hernandorena C, Dines M, Miola A, Nuñez NA, Tondo L, Baldessarini RJ, Vázquez GH. Clinical prescription of lithium, anticonvulsants antipsychotics, and antidepressants for major mood disorders. Int J Bipolar Disord. 2025; 13(1): 24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40345-025-00381-y
Gitlin M, Bauer M. Lithium: current state of the art and future directions. Int J Bipolar Disord. 2024; 12(1): 40. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40345-024-00362-7
Reinfeld S, Gill P. Lithium in Mood and Bipolar Disorders: Historical Development, Mechanisms, and Clinical Implications. Prim Care Companion CNS Disord. 2026; 28(2): 25nr04160. https://doi.org/10.4088/PCC.25nr04160
Bertollo AG, Mingoti MED, Junior SAB, Dallagnol P, Tonin PT, Ignácio ZM. Lithium Therapeutic Functions: An Update on Pharmacokinetics, Pathophysiological Mechanisms of Action, Toxicity, and Side Effects. Mol Neurobiol. 2026; 63(1): 413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-026-05663-9
Quiroz JA, Machado-Vieira R, Zarate CA Jr, Manji HK. Novel insights into lithium's mechanism of action: neurotrophic and neuroprotective effects. Neuropsychobiology. 2010; 62: 50-60. https://doi.org/10.1159/000314310
Wen J, Sawmiller D, Wheeldon B, Tan J. A Review for Lithium: Pharmacokinetics, Drug Design, and Toxicity. CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets. 2019; 18: 769-778. https://doi.org/10.2174/1871527318666191114095249
Parfitt C, Duff CJ, Scargill J, Green L, Holland D, Heald AH, Fryer AA. Serum lithium test requesting across three UK regions: an evaluation of adherence to monitoring guidelines. BMC Psychiatry. 2021; 21(1): 32. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-03023-y
Gitlin M. Lithium side effects and toxicity: prevalence and management strategies. Int J Bipolar Disord. 2016; 4(1): 27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40345-016-0068-y
Malhi GS, Bell E, Outhred T, Berk M. Lithium therapy and its interactions. Aust Prescr. 2020; 43: 91-93. https://doi.org/10.18773/austprescr.2020.024
Prasad S, Sharma V, Sosal W, Mehta P, Fatima A, Fekrat SMM, Kolloju S, Rocha M, Matmusaeva E, Gunturu S. Lithium: A review of its adverse effects, toxicity and discontinuation. Dis Mon. 2026; 72(4): 102064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.disamonth.2026.102064
Carli M, Weiss F, Grenno G, Ponzini S, Kolachalam S, Vaglini F, Viaggi C, Pardini C, Tidona S, Longoni B, Maggio R, Scarselli M. Pharmacological Strategies for Bipolar Disorders in Acute Phases and Chronic Management with a Special Focus on Lithium, Valproic Acid, and Atypical Antipsychotics. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2023; 21: 935-950. https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159X21666230224102318
Bourin M. Mechanism of action of valproic acid and its derivatives. SOJ Pharm Sci 2020; 7(1): 1-4.
Yu H, Xu N, Yang R, Zheng L, Wang K, Wang H, Wu J, Xie S, Chen Y, Li T, Chang Z, Lv X, Hu Y, Yu X, Wu Y. Real-World treatment patterns in inpatients with newly diagnosed bipolar disorder in China: A descriptive longitudinal study. J Affect Disord. 2026; 410: 121966. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2026.121966
Yue T, Zhao L, Chen Y, Xu S. Population Pharmacokinetics Model and Simulation of Unbound and Total Valproic Acid in Epileptic Children Using a Protein Binding Model. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2025; 137(6): e70142. https://doi.org/10.1111/bcpt.70142
Safdar A, Ismail F. A comprehensive review on pharmacological applications and drug-induced toxicity of valproic acid. Saudi Pharm J. 2023; 31: 265-278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsps.2022.12.001
Larsson A, Helmersson-Karlqvist J, Karlsson M. Long time monitoring of serum lithium results using patient median values show stable test results over a time period of more than 20 years. Clin Biochem. 2025; 138: 110964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2025.110964
Bourin M. Valproic acid and pregnancy SOJ Pharm Sci 2020; 7(2): 1-6.
Prabhavalkar KS, Poovanpallil NB, Bhatt LK. Management of bipolar depression with lamotrigine: an antiepileptic mood stabilizer. Front Pharmacol. 2015; 23; 6: 242. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2015.00242
Costa B, Vale N. Understanding Lamotrigine's Role in the CNS and Possible Future Evolution. Int J Mol Sci. 2023; 24(7): 6050. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24076050
Hashimoto Y, Kotake K, Watanabe N, Fujiwara T, Sakamoto S. Lamotrigine in the maintenance treatment of bipolar disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021; 9(9): CD013575. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD013575.pub2
Conner TM, Reed RC, Zhang T. A Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Model for Optimally Profiling Lamotrigine Disposition and Drug-Drug Interactions. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet. 2019; 44: 389-408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13318-018-0532-4
Tatum WO, French JA. Lamotrigine and side effects: another headache. Neurology. 2012; 78(: 849-850. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e31824d186e
Jang Y, Moon J, Kim N, Kim TJ, Jun JS, Shin YW, Chang H, Kang HR, Lee ST, Jung KH, Park KI, Jung KY, Chu K, Lee SK. A new rapid titration protocol for lamotrigine that reduces the risk of skin rash. Epilepsia Open. 2021; 6: 394-401. https://doi.org/10.1002/epi4.12495
Grunze A, Amann BL, Grunze H. Efficacy of Carbamazepine and Its Derivatives in the Treatment of Bipolar Disorder. Medicina (Kaunas). 2021; 57(5): 433. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina57050433
Ambrósio AF, Soares-Da-Silva P, Carvalho CM, Carvalho AP. Mechanisms of action of carbamazepine and its derivatives, oxcarbazepine, BIA 2-093, and BIA 2-024. Neurochem Res. 2002; 27: 121-130. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014814924965
Reinares M, Rosa AR, Franco C, Goikolea JM, Fountoulakis K, Siamouli M, Gonda X, Frangou S, Vieta E. A systematic review on the role of anticonvulsants in the treatment of acute bipolar depression. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2013; 16: 485-496. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1461145712000491
Tomson T. Clinical pharmacokinetics of carbamazepine. Cephalalgia. 1987; 7: 219-723. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1468-2982.1987.0704219.x
Fricke-Galindo I, LLerena A, Jung-Cook H, López-López M. Carbamazepine adverse drug reactions. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2018; 11: 705-718. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512433.2018.1486707
Grześk G, Stolarek W, Kasprzak M, Grześk E, Rogowicz D, Wiciński M, Krzyżanowski M. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring of Carbamazepine: A 20-Year Observational Study. J Clin Med. 2021; 10(22): 5396. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10225396
Ferrell PB Jr, McLeod HL. Carbamazepine, HLA-B*1502 and risk of Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis: US FDA recommendations. Pharmacogenomics. 2008; 9(10): 1543-1546. https://doi.org/10.2217/14622416.9.10.1543
Menon V, Ganesh R, Deep R, Sarkhel S, Goswami S, Mohapatra D, Munoli RN, Sharma PSVN, Reddy MS, Muralidharan K. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of bipolar disorder: 2025 update. Indian J Psychiatry. 2026; 68: 8-43. https://doi.org/10.4103/indianjpsychiatry_1186_25
Diaz AP, Fernandes BS, Quevedo J, Sanches M, Soares JC. Treatment-resistant bipolar depression: concepts and challenges for novel interventions. Braz J Psychiatry. 2022; 44: 178-186. https://doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2020-1627
Kishi T, Citrome L, Sakuma K, Iwata N. A comparison of recurrence rates after discontinuation of second-generation antipsychotic long-acting injectable versus corresponding oral antipsychotic in the maintenance treatment of bipolar disorder: A systematic review. Psychiatry Res. 2024; 333: 115761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2024.115761
Bourin M, Thibaud F. Can antipsychotic agents be considered as real antimanic treatments? Front. Psychiatry 2014; 5: 60. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00060
Bereda G. Pharmacological Management, Safety, and Outcomes in Bipolar Disorder: An Integrated Narrative Review of Clinical and Translational Evidence. Neuropsychopharmacol Rep. 2026; 46(2): e70141. https://doi.org/10.1002/npr2.70141
Fabrazzo M, Cipolla S, Camerlengo A, Perris F, Catapano F. Second-Generation Antipsychotics' Effectiveness and Tolerability: A Review of Real-World Studies in Patients with Schizophrenia and Related Disorders. J Clin Med. 2022; 11(15): 4530. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11154530
Park JH, Fernando K, Park YH, Park EO. Global perspectives on bipolar disorder treatment: in-depth comparative analysis of international guidelines for medication selection. BJPsych Open. 2024; 10(3): e75. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2024.27
Bourin MS, Severus E, Schronen JP, Gass P, Szamosi J, Eriksson H, Chandrashekar H. Lithium as add-on to quetiapine XR in adult patients with acute mania: a 6-week, multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Int J Bipolar Disord. 2014; 2: 14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40345-014-0014-9
Vieta E, Sanchez-Moreno J. Acute and long-term treatment of mania. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2008; 10: 165-79. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2008.10.2/evieta
Robbins-Welty G, Pattillo M, Chammas D, Sadowska K, McDermott CL, Ufere N, Webb JA, Shalev D. Second-Generation Antipsychotics for Depression in Serious Illness: A First-Line Augmentation Strategy. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2026; 72(2): e73-e79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2026.03.010
Bourin M. Quetiapine as the Pharmacological Treatment of Bipolar Depression. Clin J Pharmacol Pharmacother. 2020; 1(2): 041-042.
Franklin R, Zorowitz S, Corse AK, Widge AS, Deckersbach T. Lurasidone for the treatment of bipolar depression: an evidence-based review. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2015; 11: 2143-2152. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S50961
Tarzian M, Ndrio M, Kaja S, Beason E, Fakoya AO. Cariprazine for Treating Schizophrenia, Mania, Bipolar Depression, and Unipolar Depression: A Review of Its Efficacy. Cureus. 2023; 15(5): e39309. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.39309
Rybakowski JK. Application of Antipsychotic Drugs in Mood Disorders. Brain Sci. 2023; 13(3): 414. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13030414
Diaz AP, Fernandes BS, Quevedo J, Sanches M, Soares JC. Treatment-resistant bipolar depression: concepts and challenges for novel interventions. Braz J Psychiatry. 2022; 44: 178-186. https://doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2020-1627
Vieta E, McIntyre RS, Suppes T, Van Rheenen TE, Singh B, Miskowiak KW, Young AH, Yatham LN, Ha K, Berk M, Swartz HA, Henry C, Stefanovic MP, Diaz GA, Ozerdem A, Cubała WJ, Hidalgo-Mazzei D, Tohen M, Pacchiarotti I, Nunes PV, Lopez-Jaramillo C, Gonzalez-Pinto A, Brambilla P, Post R, Soares JC, Bauer M, Andreazza AC, Fradera XJ, Cosials-Lopez M, Fico G. Defining Treatment-Resistant Bipolar Depression: Recommendations From the ISBD Task Force. Bipolar Disord. 2025 Sep; 27(6): 411-423. https://doi.org/10.1111/bdi.70048
Hidalgo-Mazzei D, Berk M, Cipriani A, Cleare AJ, Florio AD, Dietch D, Geddes JR, Goodwin GM, Grunze H, Hayes JF, Jones I, Kasper S, Macritchie K, McAllister-Williams RH, Morriss R, Nayrouz S, Pappa S, Soares JC, Smith DJ, Suppes T, Talbot P, Vieta E, Watson S, Yatham LN, Young AH, Stokes PRA. Treatment-resistant and multi-therapy-resistant criteria for bipolar depression: consensus definition. Br J Psychiatry. 2019; 214: 27-35. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2018.257
Pardossi S, Fagiolini A, Cuomo A. Antidepressants in Bipolar Depression: From Neurotransmitter Mechanisms to Clinical Challenges. Actas Esp Psiquiatr. 2025; 53: 621-631. https://doi.org/10.62641/aep.v53i3.1880
Vieta E, Sanchez-Moreno J. Acute and long-term treatment of mania. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2008; 10: 165-179. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2008.10.2/evieta
Elsayed OH, Ercis M, Pahwa M, Singh B. Treatment-Resistant Bipolar Depression: Therapeutic Trends, Challenges and Future Directions. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2022; 18: 2927-2943. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S273503
Kajumba MM, Kakooza-Mwesige A, Nakasujja N, Koltai D, Canli T. Treatment-resistant depression: molecular mechanisms and management. Mol Biomed. 2024; 5(1): 43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43556-024-00205-y
Jawad I, Watson S, Haddad PM, Talbot PS, McAllister-Williams RH. Medication nonadherence in bipolar disorder: a narrative review. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol. 2018; 8: 349-363. https://doi.org/10.1177/2045125318804364
Malhi GS, Bell E, Outhred T, Berk M. Lithium therapy and its interactions. Aust Prescr. 2020; 43: 91-93. https://doi.org/10.18773/austprescr.2020.024
Fuhr LM, Marok FZ, Hanke N, Selzer D, Lehr T. Pharmacokinetics of the CYP3A4 and CYP2B6 Inducer Carbamazepine and Its Drug-Drug Interaction Potential: A Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling Approach. Pharmaceutics. 2021; 13(2): 270. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics13020270
McGrath JJ, Lim CCW, Plana-Ripoll O, Holtz Y, Agerbo E, Momen NC, Mortensen PB, Pedersen CB, Abdulmalik J, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Al-Hamzawi A, Alonso J, Bromet EJ, Bruffaerts R, Bunting B, de Almeida JMC, de Girolamo G, De Vries YA, Florescu S, Gureje O, Haro JM, Harris MG, Hu C, Karam EG, Kawakami N, Kiejna A, Kovess-Masfety V, Lee S, Mneimneh Z, Navarro-Mateu F, Orozco R, Posada-Villa J, Roest AM, Saha S, Scott KM, Stagnaro JC, Stein DJ, Torres Y, Viana MC, Ziv Y, Kessler RC, de Jonge P. Comorbidity within mental disorders: a comprehensive analysis based on 145 990 survey respondents from 27 countries. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 2020; 29: e153. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796020000633
Miola A, Tondo L, Pinna M, Contu M, Baldessarini RJ. Characteristics of rapid cycling in 1261 bipolar disorder patients. Int J Bipolar Disord. 2023; 11(1): 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40345-023-00300-z
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
